Literature: The Plague by Albert Camus

The Black Death was a that occurred in from 1346 to 1353. It was one of the in human history; as many as 50 million people perished, perhaps 50% of Europe's 14th century population. The disease is caused by the and spread by and through the air. One of the most significant events in European history, the Black Death had far-reaching population, economic, and cultural impacts. It was the beginning of the . The plague created religious, social and economic upheavals, with profound effects on the course of European history.

The origin of the Black Death is disputed. Genetic analysis suggests Yersinia pestis bacteria evolved approximately 7,000 years ago, at the beginning of the , with flea-mediated strains emerging around 3,800 years ago during the late . The immediate territorial origins of the Black Death and its outbreak remain unclear, with some evidence pointing towards , China, the , and Europe. The pandemic was reportedly first introduced to Europe during the in by the army of in 1347. From Crimea, it was most likely carried by living on the that travelled on ships, spreading through the and reaching , , and the rest of Europe via , , and the . There is evidence that once it came ashore, the Black Death mainly spread from person-to-person as , thus explaining the quick inland spread of the epidemic, which was faster than would be expected if the primary was causing bubonic plague. In 2022, it was discovered that there was a sudden surge of deaths in what is today Kyrgyzstan from the Black Death in the late 1330s; when combined with genetic evidence, this implies that the initial spread may have been unrelated to the 14th century previously postulated as the cause.

The Black Death was the second great natural disaster to strike Europe during the (the first one being the ) and is estimated to have killed 30% to 60% of the European population, as well as approximately 33% of the population of the Middle East. There were further outbreaks throughout the Late Middle Ages and, also due to other contributing factors (the ), the European population did not regain its 14th century level until the 16th century. Outbreaks of the plague recurred around the world until the early 19th century.

European writers contemporary with the plague described the disease in as pestis or pestilentia, 'pestilence'; epidemia, 'epidemic'; mortalitas, 'mortality'. In English prior to the 18th century, the event was called the "pestilence" or "great pestilence", "the plague" or the "great death". Subsequent to the pandemic "the furste moreyn" (first ) or "first pestilence" was applied, to distinguish the mid-14th century phenomenon from other infectious diseases and epidemics of plague.

The 1347 pandemic plague was not referred to specifically as "black," at the time, in any European language. The expression "black death" had occasionally been applied to other fatal or dangerous diseases. In English, "Black death" was not used to describe this plague pandemic, however, until the 1750s; the term is first attested in 1755, where it translated : den sorte død,  'the black death'.

This expression - as a proper name for the pandemic - had been popularized by Swedish and Danish chroniclers in the 15th and early 16th centuries, and in the 16th and 17th centuries, it was transferred to other languages as a : : svarti dauði, : der schwarze Tod, and : la mort noire. Previously, most European languages had named the pandemic a variant or calque of the : magna mortalitas,  'Great Death'.

The phrase 'black death' – describing as black – is very old. used it in the to describe the monstrous , with her mouths "full of black Death" (: πλεῖοι μέλανος Θανάτοιο, : pleîoi mélanos Thanátoio). may have been the first to describe an epidemic as 'black death', (: mors atra) but only in reference to the acute lethality and dark of disease. The 12th–13th century French physician had already used atra mors to refer to a "pestilential fever" (febris pestilentialis) in his work On the Signs and Symptoms of Diseases (De signis et symptomatibus aegritudium). The phrase mors nigra, 'black death', was used in 1350 by Simon de Covino (or Couvin), a Belgian astronomer, in his poem "On the Judgement of the Sun at a Feast of Saturn" (De judicio Solis in convivio Saturni), which attributes the plague to an astrological of Jupiter and Saturn. His use of the phrase is not connected unambiguously with the plague pandemic of 1347 and appears to refer to the fatal outcome of disease.

The historian , writing under the pen-name "Mrs Markham", described the 14th-century outbreak as the "black death" in 1823. The historian Cardinal wrote about the Great Pestilence in 1893 and suggested that it had been "some form of the ordinary Eastern or bubonic plague". In 1908, Gasquet said use of the name atra mors for the 14th-century epidemic first appeared in a 1631 book on Danish history by : "Commonly and from its effects, they called it the black death" (Vulgo & ab effectu atram mortem vocitabant).

Research from 2017 suggests plague first infected humans in Europe and Asia in the -. Research in 2018 found evidence of in an ancient Swedish tomb, which may have been associated with the "" around 3000 BCE, in which European populations fell significantly. This Y. pestis may have been different from more modern types, with bubonic plague transmissible by fleas first known from Bronze Age remains near .

The symptoms of bubonic plague are first attested in a of preserved by ; these ancient medical authorities suggest bubonic plague had appeared in the before the reign of , six centuries before arriving at in the reign of . In 2013, researchers confirmed earlier speculation that the cause of the (541–549 CE, with recurrences until 750) was Y. pestis. This is known as the . In 610, the Chinese physician described a "malignant bubo" "coming in abruptly with high fever together with the appearance of a bundle of nodes beneath the tissue." The Chinese physician Sun Simo who died in 652 also mentioned a "malignant bubo" and plague that was common in (). Ole Jørgen Benedictow believes that this indicates it was an offshoot of the first plague pandemic which made its way eastward to Chinese territory by around 600.

A report by the Medical Faculty of Paris stated that a conjunction of planets had caused "a great pestilence in the air" (). Muslim religious scholars taught that the pandemic was a "martyrdom and mercy" from God, assuring the believer's place in paradise. For non-believers, it was a punishment.^[] Some Muslim doctors cautioned against trying to prevent or treat a disease sent by God. Others adopted preventive measures and treatments for plague used by Europeans. These Muslim doctors also depended on the writings of the ancient Greeks.

Due to , rodents began to flee the dried-out grasslands to more populated areas, spreading the disease. The plague disease, caused by the bacterium , is (commonly present) in populations of fleas carried by ground , including , in various areas, including , , , , , and the western United States.

Y. pestis was discovered by , a pupil of , during an in Hong Kong in 1894; Yersin also proved this bacterium was present in rodents and suggested the rat was the main vehicle of transmission. The mechanism by which Y. pestis is usually transmitted was established in 1898 by and was found to involve the bites of fleas whose had become obstructed by replicating Y. pestis several days after feeding on an infected host. This blockage starves the fleas, drives them to aggressive feeding behaviour, and causes them to try to clear the blockage via , resulting in thousands of plague bacteria flushing into the feeding site and infecting the host. The bubonic plague mechanism was also dependent on two populations of rodents: one resistant to the disease, which act as , keeping the disease , and a second that lacks resistance. When the second population dies, the fleas move on to other hosts, including people, thus creating a human .

Definitive confirmation of the role of Y. pestis arrived in 2010 with a publication in by Haensch et al. They assessed the presence of / with (PCR) techniques for Y. pestis from the in human skeletons from mass graves in northern, central and southern Europe that were associated archaeologically with the Black Death and subsequent resurgences. The authors concluded that this new research, together with prior analyses from the south of France and Germany, "ends the debate about the cause of the Black Death, and unambiguously demonstrates that Y. pestis was the of the epidemic plague that devastated Europe during the Middle Ages". In 2011 these results were further confirmed with genetic evidence derived from Black Death victims in the burial site in England. Schuenemann et al. concluded in 2011 "that the Black Death in medieval Europe was caused by a variant of Y. pestis that may no longer exist".

Later in 2011, et al. reported in the first draft genome of Y. pestis from plague victims from the same East Smithfield cemetery and indicated that the strain that caused the Black Death is ancestral to most modern strains of Y. pestis.

Later genomic papers have further confirmed the placement of the Y. pestis strain responsible for the Black Death as both the ancestor of later plague epidemics—including the —and the descendant of the strain responsible for the . In addition, plague genomes from prehistory have been recovered.

DNA taken from 25 skeletons from 14th-century London showed that plague is a strain of Y. pestis almost identical to that which . Further DNA evidence also proves the role of Y. pestis and traces the source to the mountains in .

Researchers are hampered by a lack of reliable statistics from this period. Most work has been done on the spread of the disease in England, where estimates of overall population at the start of the plague vary by over 100%, as no census was undertaken in England between the time of publication of the of 1086 and the of the year 1377. Estimates of plague victims are usually from figures for the clergy.

is used to match the spreading patterns and the means of . In 2018 researchers suggested an alternative model in which "the disease was spread from human fleas and body lice to other people". The second model claims to better fit the trends of the plague's death toll, as the rat-flea-human hypothesis would have produced a delayed but very high spike in deaths, contradicting historical death data. The Oriental rat flea has poor survival in cooler climates and reevaluation suggests the was the principal vector of plague epidemics in Northern Europe.

argued that these authors "take it for granted that Simond's infection model, black rat → rat flea → human, which was developed to explain the spread of plague in India, is the only way an epidemic of Yersinia pestis infection could spread". Similarly, has argued that greater attention is needed to the range of (especially non-) animals that might be involved in the transmission of plague.

Archaeologist Barney Sloane has argued that there is insufficient evidence of the extinction of numerous rats in the archaeological record of the medieval waterfront in London, and that the disease spread too quickly to support the thesis that Y. pestis was spread from fleas on rats; he argues that transmission must have been person to person. This theory is supported by research in 2018 which suggested transmission was more likely by body lice and during the .

Academic debate continues, but no single alternative explanation for the plague's spread has achieved widespread acceptance. Many scholars arguing for Y. pestis as the major agent of the pandemic suggest that its extent and symptoms can be explained by a combination of bubonic plague with other diseases, including , , and . In addition to the bubonic infection, others point to additional and forms of plague, which lengthen the duration of outbreaks throughout the seasons and help account for its high mortality rate and additional recorded symptoms. In 2014, announced the results of an examination of 25 bodies exhumed in the area of London, as well as of wills registered in London during the period, which supported the pneumonic hypothesis. Currently, while have conclusively verified the presence of Y. pestis bacteria in burial sites across northern Europe through examination of bones and , no other epidemic pathogen has been discovered to bolster the alternative explanations.

The importance of was not recognized until the 19th century and the . Until then streets were usually unhygienic, with live animals and human parasites facilitating the spread of .

By the early 14th century, so much filth had collected inside urban Europe that French and Italian cities were naming streets after human waste. In medieval Paris, several street names were inspired by merde, the French word for "shit". There were rue Merdeux, rue Merdelet, rue Merdusson, rue des Merdons and rue Merdiere—as well as a rue du Pipi. Pigs, cattle, chickens, geese, goats and horses roamed the streets of medieval London and Paris.

Medieval homeowners were supposed to police their housefronts, including removing animal dung, but most urbanites were careless. William E. Cosner, a resident of the London suburb of Farringdon Without, received a complaint alleging that "men could not pass [by his house] for the stink [of] . . . horse dung and horse piss." One irate Londoner complained that the runoff from the local slaughterhouse had made his garden "stinking and putrid", while another charged that the blood from slain animals flooded nearby streets and lanes, "making a foul corruption and abominable sight to all dwelling near." In much of medieval Europe, sanitation legislation consisted of an ordinance requiring homeowners to shout, "Look out below!" three times before dumping a full chamber pot into the street.

Early Christians considered bathing a temptation. With this danger in mind, declared, "To those who are well, and especially to the young, bathing shall seldom be permitted." took the injunction to heart and died without ever bathing.

According to a team of led by , Yersinia pestis "evolved in or near China" over 2,600 years ago. Later research by a team led by Galina Eroshenko placed its origins more specifically in the mountains on the border between and China. However more recent research notes that the previous sampling contained East Asian bias and that sampling since then has discovered strains of Y. pestis in the Caucasus region previously thought to be restricted to China. There is also no physical or specific textual evidence of the Black Death in 14th century China. As a result, China's place in the sequence of the plague's spread is still debated to this day. According to Charles Creighton, records of epidemics in 14th-century China suggest nothing more than typhus and major Chinese outbreaks of epidemic disease post-date the European epidemic by several years. The earliest Chinese descriptions of the bubonic plague do not appear until the 1640s.

gravesites dating from 1338 to 1339 near have inscriptions referring to plague, which has led some historians and to think they mark the outbreak of the ; this is supported by recent direct findings of Y. pestis DNA in teeth samples from graves in the area with inscriptions referring to "pestilence" as the cause of death. Epidemics killed an estimated 25 million across Asia during the fifteen years before the Black Death reached in 1347.

The evidence does not suggest, at least at present, that these mortality crises were caused by plague. Although some scholars, including McNeill and Cao, see the 1333 outbreak as a prelude to the outbreaks in Europe from the late 1340s to the early 1350s, scholars of the Yuan and Ming periods remain skeptical about such an interpretation. Nonetheless, the remarkably high mortality rates during the Datong mortality should discourage us from rejecting the possibility of localized/regional outbreaks of plague in different parts of China, albeit differing in scale from, and unrelated to, the pandemic mortality of the Black Death. What we lack is any indication of a plague pandemic that engulfed vast territories of the Yuan Empire and later moved into western Eurasia through Central Asia.

— Philip Slavin

According to John Norris, evidence from Issyk-Kul indicates a small sporadic outbreak characteristic of transmission from rodents to humans with no wide-scale impact. According to Achtman, the dating of the plague suggests that it was not carried along the , and its widespread appearance in that region probably postdates the European outbreak. Additionally, the Silk Road had already been heavily disrupted before the spread of the Black Death; Western and Middle Eastern traders found it difficult to trade on the Silk Road by 1325 and impossible by 1340, making its role in the spread of plague less likely. There are no records of the symptoms of the Black Death from Mongol sources or writings from travelers east of the prior to the Crimean outbreak in 1346.

Others still favor an origin in China. The theory of Chinese origin implicates the Silk Road, the disease possibly spreading alongside armies and traders, or possibly arriving via ship—however, this theory is still contested. It is speculated that rats aboard 's ships in the 15th century may have carried the plague to , , and Africa.

Research on the and the shows no evidence of any serious epidemic in fourteenth-century India and no specific evidence of plague in 14th-century China, suggesting that the Black Death may not have reached these regions. Ole Benedictow argues that since the first clear reports of the Black Death come from , the Black Death most likely originated in the nearby plague focus on the northwestern shore of the .

Demographic historians estimate that China's population fell by at least 15 per cent, and perhaps as much as a third, between 1340 and 1370. This population loss coincided with the Black Death that ravaged Europe and much of the Islamic world in 1347–52. However, there is a conspicuous lack of evidence for pandemic disease on the scale of the Black Death in China at this time. War and famine – and the diseases that typically accompanied them – probably were the main causes of mortality in the final decades of Mongol rule.

— Richard von Glahn

Monica Green suggests that other parts of outside the west do not contain the same evidence of the Black Death, because there were actually four strains of Yersinia pestis that became predominant in different parts of the world. Mongol records of illness such as food poisoning may have been referring to the Black Death. Another theory is that the plague originated near Europe and cycled through the Mediterranean, Northern Europe and Russia before making its way to China. Other historians, such as John Norris and Ole Benedictaw, believe the plague likely originated in Europe or the Middle East, and never reached China. Norris specifically argues for an origin in Kurdistan rather than Central Asia.

Plague was reportedly first introduced to Europe via traders from their port city of in the in 1347. During a of the city in 1345–1346, the Mongol army of —whose mainly troops were suffering from the disease— over the city walls of Kaffa to infect the inhabitants, though it is also likely that infected rats travelled across the siege lines to spread the epidemic to the inhabitants. As the disease took hold, Genoese traders fled across the to , where the disease first arrived in Europe in summer 1347.

The epidemic there killed the 13-year-old son of the , , who wrote a description of the disease modelled on 's account of the 5th century BCE , noting the spread of the Black Death by ship between maritime cities. , while writing to , described the rising death toll, the futility of medicine, and the panic of the citizens. The first outbreak in Constantinople lasted a year, but the disease recurred ten times before 1400.

Carried by twelve Genoese galleys, plague arrived by ship in in October 1347; the disease spread rapidly all over the island. Galleys from Kaffa reached Genoa and Venice in January 1348, but it was the outbreak in a few weeks later that was the entry point into northern Italy. Towards the end of January, one of the galleys expelled from Italy arrived in .

, the disease spread northwest across Europe, , , Portugal, and by June 1348, then spreading east and north , Scotland and Scandinavia from 1348 to 1350. It was introduced in 1349 when a ship landed at , then spread to Bjørgvin (modern ). Finally, it in 1352 and reached in 1353. Plague was less common in parts of Europe with less-established trade relations, including the majority of the , isolated parts of Belgium and , and isolated Alpine villages throughout the continent.

According to some epidemiologists, periods of unfavorable weather decimated plague-infected rodent populations, forcing their fleas onto alternative hosts, inducing plague outbreaks which often peaked in the hot summers of the Mediterranean and during the cool autumn months of the southern . Among many other culprits of plague contagiousness, pre-existing malnutrition weakened the immune response, contributing to an immense decline in European population.

The disease struck various regions in the Middle East and North Africa during the , leading to serious depopulation and permanent change in both economic and social structures.

By autumn 1347, plague had reached in Egypt, transmitted by sea from via a single merchant ship carrying slaves. By late summer 1348, it reached , capital of the , cultural center of the , and the largest city in the ; the child sultan fled and more than a third of the 600,000 residents died. The was choked with corpses despite Cairo having a medieval hospital, the late 13th-century of the . The historian described the abundant work for grave-diggers and practitioners of ; plague recurred in Cairo more than fifty times over the following one and a half centuries.

During 1347, the disease travelled eastward to by April; by July it had reached , and in October plague had broken out in . That year, in of modern , , , and , the cities of , , , , and were all infected. In 1348–1349, the disease reached . The city's residents fled to the north, but most of them ended up dying during the journey. Within two years, the plague had spread throughout the Islamic world, from Arabia across North Africa.^[]

The pandemic spread westwards from Alexandria along the African coast, while in April 1348 was infected by ship from Sicily. Tunis was then under attack by an army from Morocco; this army dispersed in 1348 and brought the contagion with them to Morocco, whose epidemic may also have been seeded from the Islamic city of in .

became infected in 1348 by pilgrims performing the . In 1351 or 1352, the sultan of the , al-Mujahid Ali, was released from Mamluk captivity in Egypt and carried plague with him on his return home. During 1349, records show the city of suffered a massive epidemic, and the city of experienced a second round of the disease.

Symptoms of the plague include fever of 38–41 °C (100–106 °F), headaches, , and vomiting, and a general feeling of . Left untreated, 80% of victims die within eight days.

Contemporary accounts of the pandemic are varied and often imprecise. The most commonly noted symptom was the appearance of (or gavocciolos) in the groin, neck and armpits, which oozed pus and bled when opened. 's description:

In men and women alike it first betrayed itself by the emergence of certain in the groin or armpits, some of which grew as large as a common apple, others as an egg ... From the two said parts of the body this deadly gavocciolo soon began to propagate and spread itself in all directions indifferently; after which the form of the began to change, black spots or livid making their appearance in many cases on the arm or the thigh or elsewhere, now few and large, now minute and numerous. As the gavocciolo had been and still was an infallible token of approaching death, such also were these spots on whomsoever they showed themselves.

This was followed by acute and . Most people died two to seven days after initial infection. Freckle-like spots and rashes, which may have been caused by , were identified as another potential sign of plague.

, whose master Cardinal died of plague in 1348, noted a distinct form of the disease, , that infected the lungs and led to respiratory problems. Symptoms include fever, cough and . As the disease progresses, sputum becomes free-flowing and bright red. Pneumonic plague has a mortality rate of 90–95%.

is the least common of the three forms, with an untreated mortality rate near 100%. Symptoms are high fevers and purple skin patches ( due to ). In cases of pneumonic and particularly septicemic plague, the progress of the disease is so rapid that there would often be no time for the development of the enlarged lymph nodes that were noted as buboes.

There are no exact figures for the death toll; the rate varied widely by locality. Urban centers with higher populations suffered longer periods of abnormal mortality. Some estimate that it may have killed between 75,000,000 and 200,000,000 people in Eurasia.^[] A study published in 2022 of pollen samples across Europe from 1250 to 1450 was used to estimate changes in agricultural output before and after the Black Death. The authors found great variability in different regions, with evidence for high mortality in areas of Scandinavia, France, western Germany, Greece, and central Italy, but uninterrupted agricultural growth in central and eastern Europe, Iberia, and Ireland. The authors concluded that "the pandemic was immensely destructive in some areas, but in others it had a far lighter touch ... [the study methodology] invalidates histories of the Black Death that assume Y. pestis was uniformly prevalent, or nearly so, across Europe and that the pandemic had a devastating demographic impact everywhere."

The Black Death killed, by various estimations, from 25 to 60% of Europe's population. Robert Gottfried writes that as early as 1351, "agents for calculated the number of dead in Christian Europe at 23,840,000. With a preplague population of about 75 million, Clement's figure accounts for mortality of 31%-a rate about midway between the 50% mortality estimated for East Anglia, Tuscany, and parts of Scandinavia, and the less-than-15% morbidity for Bohemia and Galicia. And it is unerringly close to Froissart's claim that "a third of the world died," a measurement probably drawn from St. John's figure of mortality from plague in the , a favorite medieval source of information." proposes 60% mortality rate for Europe as a whole based on available data, with up to 80% based on poor nutritional conditions in the 14th century. According to medieval historian , it is likely that over four years, 45–50% of the European population died of plague.

The overwhelming number of deaths in Europe sometimes made mass burials necessary, and some sites had hundreds or thousands of bodies. The mass burial sites that have been excavated have allowed archaeologists to continue interpreting and defining the biological, sociological, historical, and anthropological implications of the Black Death. The mortality rate of the Black Death in the 14th century was far greater than the worst 20th-century outbreaks of Y. pestis plague, which occurred in India and killed as much as 3% of the population of certain cities.

In 1348, the disease spread so rapidly that nearly a third of the European population perished before any physicians or government authorities had time to reflect upon its origins. In crowded cities, it was not uncommon for as much as 50% of the population to die. Half of Paris' population of 100,000 people died. In Italy, the population of was reduced from between 110,000 and 120,000 inhabitants in 1338 to 50,000 in 1351. At least 60% of the population of and perished, and a similar percentage of Londoners may have died from the disease as well, leaving a death toll of approximately 62,000 between 1346 and 1353. Florence's tax records suggest that 80% of the city's population died within four months in 1348. Before 1350, there were about 170,000 settlements in Germany, and this was reduced by nearly 40,000 by 1450. The disease bypassed some areas, with the most isolated areas being less vulnerable to . Plague did not appear in until the turn of the 15th century, and the impact was less severe on the populations of , , northern Germany, and areas of Poland. Monks, nuns, and priests were especially hard-hit since they cared for people ill with the plague. The level of mortality in the rest of Eastern Europe was likely similar to that of Western Europe in the first outbreak, with descriptions suggesting a similar effect on Russian towns, and the cycles of plague in Russia being roughly equivalent.

In 1382, the physician to the , Raimundo Chalmel de Vinario (: Magister Raimundus,  'Master Raymond'), observed the decreasing mortality rate of successive outbreaks of plague in 1347–1348, 1362, 1371 and 1382 in his treatise On Epidemics (De epidemica). In the first outbreak, two thirds of the population contracted the illness and most patients died; in the next, half the population became ill but only some died; by the third, a tenth were affected and many survived; while by the fourth occurrence, only one in twenty people were sickened and most of them survived. By the 1380s in Europe, the plague predominantly affected children. Chalmel de Vinario recognised that was ineffective (though he continued to prescribe bleeding for members of the , whom he disliked), and said that all true cases of plague were caused by and were incurable; he was never able to effect a cure.

The populations of some Italian cities, notably , did not regain their pre-14th century size until the 19th century. Italian chronicler recorded his experience from , where plague arrived in May 1348:

Father abandoned child, wife husband, one brother another; for this illness seemed to strike through the breath and sight. And so they died. And none could be found to bury the dead for money or friendship. Members of a household brought their dead to a ditch as best they could, without priest, without divine offices ... great pits were dug and piled deep with the multitude of dead. And they died by the hundreds both day and night ... And as soon as those ditches were filled more were dug ... And I, Agnolo di Tura ... buried my five children with my own hands. And there were also those who were so sparsely covered with earth that the dogs dragged them forth and devoured many bodies throughout the city. There was no one who wept for any death, for all awaited death. And so many died that all believed it was the end of the world.

The most widely accepted estimate for the Middle East, including Iraq, Iran, and Syria, during this time, is for a death toll of about a third of the population. The Black Death killed about 40% of Egypt's population. In Cairo, with a population numbering as many as 600,000, and possibly the largest city west of China, between one third and 40% of the inhabitants died within eight months. By the 18th century, the population of Cairo was halved from its numbers in 1347.

It has been suggested that the Black Death, like other outbreaks through history, disproportionately affected the poorest people and those already in worse physical condition than the wealthier citizens.

But along with population decline from the pandemic, wages soared in response to a subsequent labour shortage. In some places rents collapsed (e.g., lettings "used to bring in £5, and now but £1.")

However, many labourers, artisans, and craftsmen—those living from money-wages alone—suffered a reduction in real incomes owing to rampant inflation. Landowners were also pushed to substitute monetary rents for labour services in an effort to keep tenants. Taxes and tithes became difficult to collect, with living poor refusing to cover the share of the rich deceased, because many properties were empty and unfarmed, and because tax-collectors, where they could be employed, refused to go to plague spots.

The trade disruptions in the caused by the Black Death was one of the reasons for its collapse.

A study performed by Thomas Van Hoof of the Utrecht University suggests that the innumerable deaths brought on by the pandemic cooled the climate by freeing up land and triggering . This may have led to the .

Renewed religious fervor and increased in the wake of the Black Death. Some Europeans targeted "various groups such as , , foreigners, beggars, ", lepers, and , blaming them for the crisis. , and others with skin diseases such as or , were killed throughout Europe.

Because 14th-century healers and governments were at a loss to explain or stop the disease, Europeans turned to forces, earthquakes and the as possible reasons for outbreaks. Many believed the epidemic was a for their sins, and could be relieved by winning .

There were many attacks against Jewish communities. In the of February 1349, about 2,000 Jews were murdered. In August 1349, the Jewish communities in and were annihilated. By 1351, 60 major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been destroyed. During this period many Jews relocated to , where they received a welcome from King .

One theory that has been advanced is that the Black Death's devastation of , between 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14th-century Italy that ultimately led to the . Italy was particularly badly hit by the pandemic, and the resulting familiarity with death may have caused thinkers to dwell more on their lives on Earth, rather than on and the . It has also been argued that the Black Death prompted a new wave of piety, manifested in the of religious works of art.

This does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred in Italy in the 14th century; the Renaissance's emergence was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors, in combination with an after the . As a result of the drastic reduction in the populace the value of the working class increased, and commoners came to enjoy more freedom. To answer the increased need for labour, workers travelled in search of the most favorable position economically.^[]

Prior to the emergence of the Black Death, the continent was considered a feudalistic society, composed of and city-states frequently managed by the Catholic Church. The pandemic completely restructured both religion and political forces; survivors began to turn to other forms of spirituality and the power dynamics of the fiefs and city-states crumbled. The survivors of the pandemic found not only that the prices of food were lower but also that lands were more abundant, and many of them inherited property from their dead relatives, and this probably contributed to the destabilization of .

The word "" has its roots in this period, though the practice of isolating people to prevent the spread of disease is older. In the city-state of (modern , Croatia), a thirty-day isolation period was implemented in 1377 for new arrivals to the city from plague-affected areas. The isolation period was later extended to forty days, and given the name "quarantino" from the Italian word for "forty".

All institutions were affected. Smaller monasteries and convents became unviable and closed. Up to half parish churches lost their priest, apart from the parishioners. Religious sensibilities changed:

"[...]looking back into the past, the history of the Church during the Middle Ages in England appears one continuous and stately progress. It is much nearer to the truth to say that in 1351 the whole ecclesiastical system was wholly disorganised, or, indeed, more than half ruined, and that everything had to be built up anew.[...] To secure the most necessary public ministrations of the rites of religion the most inadequately-prepared subjects had to be accepted, and even these could be obtained only in insufficient numbers.[...]The immediate effect on the people was a religious paralysis. Instead of turning men to God the scourge turned them to despair[...] In time the religious sense and feeling revived, but in many respects it took a new tone, and its manifestations ran in new channels[...]characterised by a devotional and more self-reflective cast than previously.[...]
The new religious spirit found outward expression in the multitude of guilds which sprang into existence at this time, in the remarkable and almost, as it may seem to some, extravagant development of certain pious practices, in the singular spread of a more personal devotion to the Blessed Sacrament, to the Blessed Virgin, to the Five Wounds, to the Holy Name, and other such manifestations of a more tender or more familiar piety.[...]At the close of the fourteenth century and during the course of the fifteenth the supply of ornaments, furniture, plate, statues painted or in highly decked "coats," with which the churches were literally encumbered as time went on, proved a striking contrast to the comparative simplicity which characterised former days, as witnessed by a comparison of inventories.[...]
In fact, the fifteenth century witnessed the beginnings of a great middle-class movement, which can be distinctly traced to the effect of the great pestilence[...]

— Cardinal

The plague repeatedly returned to haunt Europe and the Mediterranean throughout the 14th to 17th centuries. According to Jean-Noël Biraben, the plague was present somewhere in Europe in every year between 1346 and 1671 (although some researchers have cautions about the uncritical use of Biraben's data). The second pandemic was particularly widespread in the following years: 1360–1363; 1374; 1400; 1438–1439; 1456–1457; 1464–1466; 1481–1485; 1500–1503; 1518–1531; 1544–1548; 1563–1566; 1573–1588; 1596–1599; 1602–1611; 1623–1640; 1644–1654; and 1664–1667. Subsequent outbreaks, though severe, marked the plague's retreat from most of Europe (18th century) and North Africa (19th century).

Historian George Sussman argued that the plague had not occurred in East Africa until the 20th century. However, other sources suggest that the second pandemic did indeed reach sub-Saharan Africa.

According to historian , "France alone lost almost a million people to the plague in the epidemic of 1628–31." In the first half of the 17th century, a plague killed some 1.7 million people in Italy. More than 1.25 million deaths resulted from the extreme incidence of plague in 17th-century .

The Black Death ravaged much of the . Plague could be found in the Islamic world almost every year between 1500 and 1850. Sometimes the outbreaks affected small areas, while other outbreaks affected multiple regions. Plague repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa. lost 30,000–50,000 inhabitants to it in 1620–1621, and again in 1654–1657, 1665, 1691, and 1740–1742. Cairo suffered more than fifty plague epidemics within 150 years from the plague's first appearance, with the final outbreak of the second pandemic there in the 1840s. Plague remained a major event in society until the second quarter of the 19th century. Between 1701 and 1750, thirty-seven larger and smaller epidemics were recorded in , and an additional thirty-one between 1751 and 1800. has suffered severely from visitations of the plague, and sometimes two-thirds of its population died.

The third plague pandemic (1855–1859) started in China in the mid-19th century, spreading to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone. The investigation of the pathogen that caused the 19th-century plague was begun by teams of scientists who visited Hong Kong in 1894, among whom was the French-Swiss bacteriologist , for whom the pathogen was named.

Twelve plague outbreaks in Australia between 1900 and 1925 resulted in over 1,000 deaths, chiefly in Sydney. This led to the establishment of a Public Health Department there which undertook some leading-edge research on plague transmission from rat fleas to humans via the bacillus Yersinia pestis.

The first North American plague epidemic was the , followed by another outbreak in 1907–1908.

Modern treatment methods include , the use of , and a . It is feared that the plague bacterium could develop and again become a major health threat. One case of a drug-resistant form of the bacterium was found in in 1995. Another outbreak in Madagascar was reported in November 2014. In October 2017, the in modern times hit Madagascar, killing 170 people and infecting thousands.

An estimate of the for the modern , after the introduction of , is 11%, although it may be higher in underdeveloped regions.

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