Regional politics and entrenched business interests complicate Morocco’s ECOWAS membership bid

The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS; also known as CEDEAO in French and Portuguese) is a regional and of twelve countries of . Collectively, the present and former members comprise an area of 5,114,162 km² (1,974,589 sq mi) and have an estimated population of over 424.34 million.

Considered one of the pillar of the continent-wide (AEC), the stated goal of ECOWAS is to achieve "collective " for its member states by creating a single large trade bloc by building a full economic and trading union. Additionally, ECOWAS aims to raise and promote . The union was established on 28 May 1975, with the signing of the , with its stated mission to promote economic integration across the region. A revised version of the was agreed and signed on 24 July 1993 in , the largest city in Benin.

ECOWAS's published principles include equality and inter-dependence of member states, solidarity, self-reliance, cooperation and harmonization of policies, nonaggression, promotion of , economic and , and democratic governance.

Notably among ECOWAS's protocols and plans are the ECOWAS Free Movement of Persons, Residences and Establishment Protocol and the Ecotour Action Plan 2019–2029. The Free Movement of Persons Protocol permits citizens the right to enter and reside in any member state's territory, and the Ecotour Action Plan aims to develop and integrate the tourist industry of each member state.

ECOWAS also serves as a force in the region, with member states occasionally sending joint to intervene in the bloc's member countries at times of political instability and unrest.

In 2024, the of , , and jointly announced their withdrawal from the bloc, after having been suspended following respective military takeovers in these countries. The withdrawal took effect on 29 January 2025.

ECOWAS currently has 12 member states: five -speaking, five -speaking, and two -speaking. All current members joined the community as founding members in May 1975, except which joined in 1977.

officially requested to join ECOWAS in February 2017. The application was endorsed in principle at the Summit of Heads of State in June 2017. However, Morocco's bid for membership was stalled as West African economic actors feared goods imported through Morocco's free trade agreements would flood the market of states within ECOWAS.

Arabic-speaking was one of the founding members of ECOWAS in 1975 and decided to withdraw in December 2000. Mauritania signed a new associate-membership agreement in August 2017.

was suspended from ECOWAS on 30 May 2021, following its within nine months. was also suspended on 8 September 2021, shortly after a took place in the country. Sanctions were placed on both countries on 16 September. On 10 January 2022, Mali announced its decision to close its borders and recalled several ambassadors with ECOWAS in response to sanctions imposed for deferring elections for four years. On 28 January 2022, was suspended from ECOWAS following a . was suspended from ECOWAS after the and threatened with military intervention if President is not restored to office, causing the Additionally, ECOWAS closed all land and air borders between other member states and Niger and instituted a no-fly zone on all commercial flights to and from Niger. The suspension removed all commercial and financial transactions and froze Niger's assets in ECOWAS central banks. On 16 September 2023, Niger, Mali, and Burkina Faso formed a military alliance, the (AES), following ECOWAS's threat to intervene to restore civilian rule in Niger. On 21 November 2023, Niger's military government asked the ECOWAS regional court to order the lifting of sanctions imposed on the country. Until the coup, aid from countries like the United States and international organizations like ECOWAS accounted for almost half of Niger's annual budget. Following Niger's ECOWAS suspension, Niger's neighbours closed their borders to the country and 70 percent of its electricity, coming from Nigeria, was cut off. While these sanctions and consequences that have followed have impacted the individuals and economy of Niger, the government is not backing down. As a result of the suspension, children have not been able to attend school due to lack of supplies, and businesses are shutting down due to rising costs. Further, the ECOWAS lawyer pointed out that the Nigerien government is not recognized by ECOWAS and therefore does not have the power to ask the regional court for a removal of these sanctions.

On 28 January 2024, , , and announced via a joint statement that they were withdrawing from ECOWAS "without delay". The three nations, all of which are currently ruled by military juntas, accused ECOWAS of implementing "inhumane" sanctions in order to reverse the coups in each nation. Under the ECOWAS protocol, immediate withdrawal is not possible, and the three member states could remain in the bloc for up to a year. ECOWAS said in a statement that "Burkina Faso, Niger and Mali remain important members of the Community and the Authority remains committed to finding a negotiated solution to the political impasse."

On 24 February 2024, ECOWAS announced that it was lifting some sanctions against Niger, Mali and Burkina Faso. For Niger this included the border closures, the freezing of central bank and state assets, the suspension of commercial transactions, and the no-fly-zone for commercial flights to and from Niger. However, the political sanctions and targeted sanctions would remain in force. The communiqué said this was done for humanitarian reasons, but it was seen as a gesture of appeasement to dissuade the three junta-led states from withdrawing from the bloc. ECOWAS also lifted sanctions on Guinea and Guinea-Bissau.

In December 2024, ECOWAS heads of state of the member countries met finalize the decision regarding the withdrawal of Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso, united under the AES. President of Senegal, Basirou Diomaye Faye, stated on December 8, 2024 that he was continuing to discuss with the three countries remaining in ECOWAS, while maintaining the Alliance of Sahel States, which he recognized as a security response in the Sahel region. On December 12, 2024, ECOWAS President Bola Tinubu confirmed the political will of ECOWAS leaders to reintegrate the three countries from the Alliance of Sahel States. On December 15, 2024, the Conference of Heads of State of ECOWAS adopted an exit transition period for Niger, Burkina Faso, Mali, which begins on January 29, 2025 and ends on July 29, 2025. During this transition period, ECOWAS has indicated that any exit would be reversible. The AES rejected the proposal.^[] Celebrations were held in the three countries to mark the formal exit on 29 January. ECOWAS noted the withdrawal, while calling for the continuance of existing arrangements for the free movement of people and goods, including requesting its own members still accept documents from the departing countries.

The Foreign Ministers of the Alliance of Sahel States met on January 26, 2025, in Ouagadougou "in anticipation of future talks with ECOWAS", The Ministers reached a consensus on the overall approach to future negotiations with ECOWAS, in the best interest of the Sahelian populations. From January 29, 2025, begins the beginning of a six-month "transition period" after the official separation with the three Sahelian countries. The three Sahelian countries rejected any possibility of reversing their decision.

ECOWAS member states

Country	Area (km2)	Population (thousands)	GDP (nominal) (millions USD)	GDP (PPP) (millions intl.$)	Currency	Official language	Status
	114,763	10,880	8,291	22,377			—
	4,033	521	1,603	3,413			—
	11,295	1,991	939	3,344			—
	238,533	27,410	37,543	115,409			—
	245,857	12,609	6,699	15,244			Suspended
	36,125	1,844	1,057	2,685			—
	322,463	22,702	31,759	79,766			—
	111,369	4,503	2,053	3,762			—
	923,768	211,400	481,066	1,093,921			—
	196,712	15,129	13,610	36,625			—
	72,300	6,453	4,215	10,127			—
	56,785	7,305	4,088	10,667			—
Total	5,114,162	338,052	623,491	1,482,756	—

Statistics for population, nominal and GDP listed below are taken from estimates for 2015, published in December 2016. Area data is taken from a 2012 report compiled by the .

ECOWAS was formed initially from the region's former French, British and Portuguese colonies, and independent Liberia, following post-colonial independence throughout the region (particularly in the 1960s and 1970s). At independence, many African states were challenged in increasing economic development. Because these states could not address problems individually, there was a need for a regional approach and thus ECOWAS was founded. ECOWAS was formed to provide regional economic cooperation, but has since evolved to include political and military cooperation, as well.

The union was established on 28 May 1975, with the signing of the , with its stated mission to promote economic integration across the region. A revised version of the treaty was agreed and signed on 24 July 1993 in Cotonou. Considered one of the pillar of the continent-wide (AEC), the stated goal of ECOWAS is to achieve "collective " for its member states by creating a single large trade bloc by building a full economic and trading union.

ECOWAS also serves as a force in the region, with member states occasionally sending joint military forces to intervene in the bloc's member countries at times of political instability and unrest. ECOWAS facilitates peacekeeping through systematic collaboration with civil society, cooperation with development policies, and other activities with the goal to meet sub-regional security challenges. It has played an important role in monitoring transitional election in West Africa, and these mediation efforts have even been recognized within and outside the continent of Africa. In recent years these included interventions in , , , , , and . Since its creation, ECOWAS has sent peacekeeping forces seven times.

In 2011, ECOWAS adopted its development blueprint for the next decade, Vision 2020, and, to accompany it, a Policy on Science and Technology (). However, it has had trouble achieving the goals outlined in the policy.

Covering a region known as a "", ECOWAS, since the 1990s, has attempted to defend the region's shift towards democracy against authoritarian attacks. According to the BBC, since 1990, 78% of the 27 coups in sub-Saharan Africa have taken place in former French colonies. This has led some to question whether French influence in Africa has a destabilising impact. The transition governments in Mali and Burkina Faso cancelled military agreements that allow for French troops to operate on their territory, and in the case of Mali, removed French as an official language. However, the group has been cited for mild and ineffective responses in the early 2020s, when three member countries experienced military – two in Mali, one in Guinea, and two in Burkina Faso. When a fourth member, Niger, experienced a , ECOWAS was vocal in its condemnation and raised the possibility of military action if the deposed president was not reinstated by 7 August 2023. Due to the Nigerien military's refusal to restore civilian rule, ECOWAS activated its standby force composed of all other members except for Mali, Burkina Faso, Guinea and Cape Verde.

On 6 July 2024, the military leaders of Niger, Mali, and Burkina Faso signed a new pact to form a confederation, a political union of . The confederation's stated goal is to provide mutual defense, pool resources to build energy and communications infrastructure, establish a , implement a under proposed currency the Sahel, allow , enable , and invest in agriculture, mines and energy sectors, with the end goal of into a single . The move is seen as a strong move away from ECOWAS, which has been pressing for a return to civilian rule.

ECOWAS consists of two operating institutions to implement policies: the ECOWAS Commission and the ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development (EBID) – formerly known as the Fund for Cooperation, until it was renamed in 2001.

In addition, ECOWAS includes the following institutions: ECOWAS Commission, Community Court of Justice, Community Parliament, ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development (EBID), West African Health Organisation (WAHO), and the Inter-Governmental Action Group against Money Laundering and Terrorism Financing in West Africa (GIABA).

ECOWAS includes two sub-regional blocks:

• The (also known by its French-language acronym UEMOA) is an organisation of eight, mainly French-speaking, states within ECOWAS which share a and . Established in 1994 and intended to counterbalance the dominance of English-speaking economies in the bloc (such as Nigeria and Ghana), members of UEMOA are mostly former territories of . The currency they all use is the , which is to the .
• The (WAMZ), established in 2000, comprises six mainly English-speaking countries within ECOWAS which plan to work towards adopting their own common currency, the .

ECOWAS operates in three co-official languages—French, English, and Portuguese.

Executive Secretary	Country	In office
Inaugural holder		January 1977 – 1985
		1985–1989
		1989–1993
		1993–1997
		September 1997 – 31 January 2002
		1 February 2002 – 31 December 2006
		1 January 2007 – 18 February 2010
		18 February 2010 – 1 March 2012
		1 March 2012 – 4 June 2016
		4 June 2016 – 1 March 2018
		1 March 2018 – 3 July 2022
		3 July 2022 – present

Chairperson	Country	In office
		28 May 1975 – 29 July 1975
		29 July 1975 – 13 September 1977
		13 September 1977 – 30 September 1979
		30 September 1979 – 31 December 1980
		1980–1981
		1981–1982
		1982–1983
		1983–1984
		1984–1985
		1985 – 27 August 1985
		27 August 1985 – 1989
		1989–1990
		1990–1991
		1991–1992
		1992–1993
		1993–1994
		1994 – 27 July 1996
		27 July 1996 – 8 June 1998
		9 June 1998 – 1999
		1999–1999
		1999 – 21 December 2001
		21 December 2001 – 31 January 2003
		31 January 2003 – 19 January 2005
		19 January 2005 – 19 January 2007
		19 January 2007 – 19 December 2008
		19 December 2008 – 18 February 2010
		18 February 2010 – 17 February 2012
		17 February 2012 – 17 February 2013
		17 February 2013 – 19 May 2015
		19 May 2015 – 4 June 2016
		4 June 2016 – 4 June 2017
		4 June 2017 – 31 July 2018
		31 July 2018 – 29 June 2019
		29 June 2019 – 2 June 2020
		2 June 2020 – 3 July 2022
		3 July 2022 – 9 July 2023
		9 July 2023 – Present

ECOWAS nations signed a non-aggression protocol in 1990 along with two earlier agreements in 1978 and 1981. They also signed a Protocol on Mutual Defence Assistance in Freetown, Sierra Leone, on 29 May 1981, that provided for the establishment of an Allied Armed Force of the Community.

The Community Parliament consists of 115 members, distributed based on the population of each member state. This body is headed by the Speaker of the Parliament, who is above the Secretary General.

Country	Parliament Seats
	5
	6
	5
	5
	8
	6
	5
	7
	5
	6
	6
	35
	6
	5
	5

For the third time since its inception in 1975, ECOWAS is undergoing institutional reforms. The first was when it revised its treaty on 24 July 1993; the second was in 2007 when the Secretariat was transformed into a Commission. As of July 2013, ECOWAS now has six new departments (Human Resources Management; Education, Science and Culture; Energy and Mines; Telecommunications and IT; Industry and Private Sector Promotion). Finance and Administration to Sierra Leone has been decoupled, to give the incoming Ghana Commissioner the new portfolio of Administration and Conferences.

ECOWAS Community Court of Justice was created by a protocol signed in 1991 and was later included in Article 6 of the Revised Treaty of the Community in 1993. However, the Court did not officially begin operations until the 1991 protocol came into effect on 5 November 1996. The jurisdiction of the court is outlined in Article 9 and Articles 76 of the Revised Treaty and allows rulings on disputes between states over interpretations of the Revised Treaty. It also provides ECOWAS Council with advisory opinions on legal issues (Article 10). Like its companion courts, the and , it has jurisdiction to rule on fundamental breaches.

ECOWAS nations organise a broad array of cultural and sports events under the auspices of the body, including the in , the and the .

The Community Heads of State and Government adopted as the Community sport, and through its specialised agency in charge of youth and sports development, the -based ECOWAS Youth and Sports Development Centre (EYSDC), has consistently organised the yearly ECOWAS African Wrestling Tournament mainly in (Senegal) and (Niger) based on a harmonized African wrestling code.

The Community, through the EYSDC, also organized 2 editions of ECOWAS International Cycling tour, taking close to 100 riders from all member states, from to and then from Lagos to . In addition to the sports and well-being objective of the tour, the race also served to demonstrate and put into practice ECOWAS protocol on free movement of goods and persons.

In 2019, the EYSDC instituted ECOWAS Abuja International Marathon. The first edition brought together international marathoners from West Africa, , and .

Similarly, the Community, through its specialised agency, promotes regional sports development by offering sponsorship to regional sports federations and specialized disciplines such as the West African Deaf Sports Union (WADSU), the West African Liaison Office of the International Council for Military Sports (WALO-CISM), the Region 2 of the African Athletics Federation, and the (WAUG), among others.

The ECOWAS Youth Policy Strategic Plan of Action (SPAO) is a 10-year plan that aims to promote youth development and empowerment in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). The SPAO was adopted in 2016 and is based on the pillars of education and training, employment and entrepreneurship, health and well-being, peace and security, and governance and participation.

The SPAO identifies a number of challenges facing youth in ECOWAS, including high unemployment rates, lack of access to education and training, and poor health outcomes. The plan sets out a number of strategies to address these challenges, including investing in education and training, creating jobs and supporting entrepreneurship, improving access to health care, promoting peace and security, and strengthening youth participation in governance.

Formed in 1994 on the basis of earlier arrangements whose roots lie in the colonial era of , the West African Economic and Monetary Union, often referred to by its French acronym UEMOA, brings together eight West African states of which seven were French colonies until the late 1950s. The member countries use the as their currency and share common institutions including the , , , and (together with other African countries of the ) .

•   (Founding Member)
•   (Founding Member)
•   (Joined on 2 May 1997)
•   (Founding Member)
•   (Founding Member)
•   (Founding Member)
•   (Founding Member)
•   (Founding Member)

Formed in 2000, the West African Monetary Zone (WAMZ) is a group of six countries within ECOWAS that plan to introduce a common currency called the . The six member states of WAMZ are , , , and who founded the organisation together in 2000 and who joined on 16 February 2010. Apart from Guinea, which is francophone, they are all English-speaking countries. Along with , Guinea opted out of the currency shared by all other former French colonies in and .

The WAMZ attempts to establish a strong stable currency to rival the CFA franc, whose to that of the euro and is guaranteed by the . The eventual goal is for the CFA franc and eco to merge, giving all of West and Central Africa a single, stable currency. The launch of the new currency is being developed by the based in , Ghana.

•   (Founding Member)
•   (Founding Member)
•   (Founding Member)
•   (Joined on 16 February 2010)
•   (Founding Member)
•   (Founding Member)

In May 1979, ECOWAS adopted a Free Movement of Persons, Residence and Establishment Protocol, which permits citizens to enter, reside, and establish economic activities in the territory of member states. There were three phases of implementation to achieve the goals of the protocol. Over the course of five years, Phase I eliminated the need for visas for stays of up to 90 days within the ECOWAS territory. Phase II attempted to extend residency to citizens in host ECOWAS states to seek income-earning employment after obtaining an ECOWAS residence card. Phase II also required member states to grant migrant workers equal treatment in areas such as employment, participation, social and cultural activities, and in certain cases of job loss, re-employment, and training. Phase III centered on the facilitation and establishment of business through the right of citizens to manage economic activities in countries other than their country of origin. However, this right has not been fully established in the ECOWAS region. While these three phases promoting freedom of movement within the ECOWAS region is more advanced than in any other regional grouping in Africa, only the first phase has been fully implemented by all ECOWAS countries. The complete implementation of the 90-day visa-free window enhanced human mobility in the region, creating positive impacts on trade and economic development.

In December 2000, the was introduced as a common passport that functions as an international travel document, and member states are currently in the process of implementing a joint visa for non-ECOWAS citizens. Additionally, ECOWAS has worked to ease the movement of people transported in private and commercial vehicles by implementing policies that enable vehicles to enter and reside in a State for up to ninety days. Most ECOWAS states have instituted an ECOWAS brown card, which provides prompt, fair, and immediate compensation for any motor accident which occurs outside a motorist's home-country.

While monitoring committees exist to ensure all three phases of the protocol are successfully implemented, their work is vague and has not been credited with effective and efficient production of data. The largest challenges assosicated within the implementation of the protocol occur due to lack of commitment and enforceability. More so, there is a lack of access to readily available migrant information in the ECOWAS region. This poses a barrier to freedom of movement as immigration officials in member states are unaware that individuals who hold valid travel documents can enter their country freely. Therefore, West African migrants, who are entitled to enter through regular channels, leave their countries without proper travel documents and enter other countries illegally. This illegal and irregular entry poses a barrier towards gaining reliable travel statistics.

For example, Francophone countries in the region have issued national identity cards that can be used similarly to a passport. These cards permit citizens to cross borders after presenting their identity cards. However, Anglophone countries have only just begun distributing a similar form of identification. Consequently, immigration officials in Anglophone countries commonly reject Francophone national identity cards and do not permit Francophone citizens to cross into their borders. Further, these structural barriers are exasperated between different social classes. Middle-class individuals typically experience a smoother border-crossing process than working-class individuals and impoverished citizens who do not have travel documents and are not fluent in the language of the countries they are crossing into.

A Trans-ECOWAS project, established in 2007, plans to upgrade railways in this zone.

In 2019, ECOWAS unveiled its Ecotour Action Plan 2019 – 2029. It focuses on tourism heritage protection and development and on the development of standards, regulations, and control systems. The plan includes five programs for implementation, and detailed mechanisms for monitoring and evaluation. is not specifically developed, yet it has been mentioned that the program has the opportunity to create linkages between institutions and stakeholder collaboration to suit ecotourism projects that prioritize community, biodiversity, and socioeconomics. The Ecotour Plan prioritizes local development, especially in generating skilled and unskilled jobs for marginalized individuals, and aims to make the ECOWAS region a first-class tourist destination in Africa. During its creation, ECOWAS ministers also called on ecotourism programs to protect threatened biodiversity in the , which span into seven ECOWAS member states. Similar to the Free Movement of People Protocol, Ecotour aims to integrate aviation and ground transportation. ECOWAS hopes that this regional approach will allow states to fight against to restore tourism and ecosystems. Ecotour works to create increasing returns to its members' economies by lowering transport costs, developing hospitality training centers and creating a more integrated use of digital technology.

As of March 2023, Council members mentioned that phases one and two of the Ecotour Action Plan have come to an end and that the community is moving into phase three and four, which focuses on the development of tourist accommodations establishments, and a proposal for a regional mechanism to enforce tourist regulations. By the end of phase five, ECOWAS hopes to have unified accommodations in hotels, ecolodges, motels, , and hostels. In April 2023, tourism experts met to amend the new text for tourist accommodations in the ECOWAS region. This phase is critical to the success of the Ecotour plan as the lack of a regulatory system has been a barrier to the development of the tourism sector, despite its ability to increase member states' economies. During this conference, ministers improved the tourism industry by adopting standards for hotel services. Mrs. Massandjé Toure-Liste, the ECOWAS Commission's Commissioner for Economic Affairs and Agriculture, pointed out the improvements in the tourist sector due to the , a trade agreement signed by 44 members of the which creates a single market for goods and services. Mrs. Toure-Liste praised the trade area for providing development opportunities, economic growth, and boosting regional integration.

• – motor insurance scheme of ECOWAS
• (COMESA)
• (ECCAS)
• (SADC)